Pollution

Pollution

Assessment of Cytogenetic Biomarkers in Populations Living in High-Traffic and Industrial Areas of Baghdad

Document Type : Original Research Paper

Authors
Zinah Faeq Ahmed 1
Hasan Kadhim Nimr 1
Rana Fadhil Abbas 1
Mohammed Abdulsalam Kassim 1
Njah K Nimr 2
1 Scientific Research Commission, Baghdad, Iraq
2 Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq
10.22059/poll.2026.415197.3347
Abstract
Lead (Pb) continues to be a persistent environmental contaminant that puts human health at grave risk for toxicity and genotoxicity. This study investigated the genotoxic effects of lead exposure in Baghdad City residents using the Buccal Micronucleus Cytome (BMCyt) assay as a biomonitoring tool. Nuclear abnormalities in buccal epithelial cells, such as pyknosis, karyolysis, karyorrhexis, and micronucleus formation, are well-known indicators of cell death and genotoxicity. A validated technique for identifying chromosomal instability and exposure to environmental mutagens is the micronucleus assay. In comparison with the control group, this study examined cytogenetic damage in people exposed to occupational and environmental pollutants in Baghdad, Iraq.70 participants (35 controls and 35 exposed, ages 25–40) had buccal cell samples taken. Chi-square tests were used to evaluate nuclear abnormalities and determine statistical significance. Nuclear abnormalities were significantly more common in the exposed group (≥94%) than in the control group (≤14.3%). Pyknosis, karyolysis, karyorrhexis, and micronucleus formation were all markedly increased (p < 0.001), suggesting severe genotoxic stress linked to environmental exposure.
Keywords
Cytogenetic biomarkers
Genotoxicity
Buccal Micronucleus Cytome assay (BMCyt)
Subjects
Abdul-Ameer, R., Al-Saadi, A., & Alwan, M. (2020). Monitoring genotoxicity among traffic policemen in Baghdad using the Buccal Micronucleus Cytome assay. ResearchGate Preprint.
Baptista, F., Garcia, P. V., Rodrigues, A. S., & Ladeira, C. (2023). Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity assessment of volatile organic compounds in pathology professionals through the buccal micronuclei assay. Toxics, 13(5), 411. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050411
Bresam, S., Nimr, H. K., & Nimr, N. K. (2025). Clinical parameters and SNP prevalence of CYP2E1, MDM2, and BHMT genes in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Journal of Bio X Research, 8, 0069.
DeMarini, D. M. (2013). Genotoxicity biomarkers associated with exposure to traffic and near-road atmospheres: A review. Mutagenesis, 28(5), 485–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/mutage/get042
Elmore, S. (2007). Apoptosis: A review of programmed cell death. Toxicologic Pathology, 35(4), 495–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926230701320337
Farabaugh, K., Johnson, M., & Lee, S. (2023). Micronucleus assay sensitivity in detecting DNA damage from nanomaterials. Toxicology Letters, 380, 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2023.03.007
Fenech, M., Bolognesi, C., Nersesyan, A., Knasmueller, S., & Bonassi, S. (2025). Innovating the buccal micronucleus cytome assay to improve its utility as a biomarker of in vivo genotoxicity. Mutagenesis, geaf023. https://doi.org/10.1093/mutage/geaf023
Fiorin, P. B. G., Ludwig, M. S., Frizzo, M. N., & Heck, T. G. (2021). Environmental particulate air pollution exposure and oxidative stress responses: A brief review. In Reactive Oxygen Species. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95618
Flora, G., Gupta, D., & Tiwari, A. (2012). Toxicity of lead: A review with recent updates. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 5(2), 47–58. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10102-012-0009-2
Garcia-Llorens, G., El Ouardi, M., & Valls-Belles, V. (2025). Oxidative stress fundamentals: Unraveling the pathophysiological role of redox imbalance in non-communicable diseases. Applied Sciences, 15(18), 10191. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151810191
Halder, S., Jana, S., Manna, A., & Jana, K. (2024). Apoptosis: Oxidative stress and antioxidants. In Apoptosis and Human Health: Understanding Mechanistic and Therapeutic Potential (pp. 141–153). Springer.
Hamzah, S. H., Al-Kazaz, F. F., & Al-Salihi, A. M. (2018). Assessment of genotoxicity among traffic policemen in Baghdad using micronucleus assay. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(4), 3500–3508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0740-3
Harte, C., Williams, J., & Chen, Y. (2024). Development of a multi-biomarker micronucleus assay using imaging flow cytometry for environmental toxicology. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 65(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/em.22584
Holland, N., Bolognesi, C., Kirsch-Volders, M., Bonassi, S., Zeiger, E., Knasmueller, S., & Fenech, M. (2008). The micronucleus assay in human buccal cells as a tool for biomonitoring DNA damage: The HUMN project perspective. Mutagenesis, 23(6), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1093/mutage/gen048
IASJ. (2025). A survey of dust-borne lead concentration in Baghdad City. Iraqi Academic Scientific Journals.
Khan, M. I., Ahmad, I., Mahdi, A. A., Akhtar, M. J., Islam, N., Ashquin, M., & Venkatesh, T. (2010). Elevated blood lead levels and cytogenetic markers in buccal epithelial cells of painters in India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 17(7), 1347–1354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0319-8
MDPI. (2024). Oxidative stress induced by air pollution. Antioxidants, 13(11), 1393. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13111393
Nimr, H. K., Sultan, M. A., & Nimr, N. K. (2023). Using modern genetic methods to detect air-borne bacterial genes through desert storms in Iraq. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1223(1), 012010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1223/1/012010
Nimr, H. K., Sultan, M. A., & Nimr, N. K. (2024). Predicting chemical toxicity in rivers near electricity station outlet discharges using quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR). Pollution, 11(1), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.22059/POLL.2024.374220.2198
Obaid, B. H., Salman, M. D., Nimr, H. K., & Makki, N. F. (2026). Molecular docking of selected bisphenols and a pyrethroid metabolite targeting dopamine receptors (DRD2 and DRD4). Journal of the Iranian Chemical Society, 23(3), 72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13738-025-03198-5
Olympio, K. P. K., Salles, F. J., Akiba, N., & Luz, M. S. (2023). Biomarkers of lead exposure: Platforms and analysis. In Biomarkers in Toxicology (pp. 489–513). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07392-2_27
Pinto, D., Costa, S., Coelho, P., Silva, S., García-Lestón, J., Pásaro, E., Laffon, B., & Teixeira, J. P. (2024). Environmental and occupational exposure to air pollutants and their association with DNA damage biomarkers: A systematic review. Environmental Research, 248, 118345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.118345
Springer. (2025). Buccal micronucleus cytome assay to evaluate cyto-genotoxic effects of drug exposure on healthcare workers. Archives of Toxicology, 99(4), 4073–4085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-025-04000-0
Thomas, P., Holland, N., Bolognesi, C., Kirsch-Volders, M., Bonassi, S., Zeiger, E., Knasmueller, S., & Fenech, M. (2009). Buccal micronucleus cytome assay. Nature Protocols, 4(6), 825–837. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2009.53
Tolbert, P. E., Shy, C. M., & Allen, J. W. (1992). Micronuclei and other nuclear anomalies in buccal smears: Methods development. Mutation Research, 271(1), 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1161(92)90033-I
Pollution
Volume 12, Issue 4
Autumn 2026
Pages 1111-1118