All that Glitters may be Toxic: Understanding the Impact of Exposure to Glitter Microplastics upon Animal Health

Document Type : Original Research Paper

Authors

1 Department of Wildlife and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore-Pakistan

2 Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore-Pakistan

3 Department of Zoology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore-Pakistan

10.22059/poll.2025.398841.3031

Abstract

Glitter, a type of primary microplastic, has multiple applications including in cosmetics, embellishments in arts and crafts, decoration items and jewelry. The current study was designed to determine the potential effects on ingestion of microplastics upon hematology, histology and DNA integrity in relation to varying doses in experimental groups of Mus musculus along with their retention within the body. Commercial glitter (Polyethylene terephthalate), (0.03 µm in size) was selected and fed to experimental groups mixed with basal diet in escalating doses (0.0 µg/kg, 100 µg/kg, 200 µg/kg, 400 µg/kg and 800 µg/kg). Fecal matter was collected on daily basis and analyzed for amounts of MPs present in them. After trial duration of 21 days, blood samples were collected following standard protocol and hematological parameters analyzed. Statistical analysis indicated no significant difference of doses upon blood profile at α = 0.05 except for Lymphocytes (p = 0.01) which showed a significant impact at higher doses i.e. 400 µg/kg and 800 µg/kg. Histological examination of Gastrointestinal Tract indicated degeneration and sloughing of mucosal cells, and necrosis in intestines of groups treatment group 3 and treatment group 4. Degeneration and disruption of villi was also visible in these groups. Likewise DNA damage was noted to increase with increase in doses. It was also observed that the amount of MPs present in excreta reduced as the dose increased.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

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    Coppock, R. L., Galloway, T. S., Cole, M., Fileman, E. S., Queirós, A. M., & Lindeque, P. K. (2019). Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Sci. Total Environ., 687; 780-9.
    da Costa Araujo, A. P., & Malafaia, G. (2020). Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles’ behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri). J. Hazard. Mater., 391; 122214.
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    Hou, B., Wang, F., Liu, T., & Wang, Z. (2021). Reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: In vivo experimental study on testicular toxicity in mice. J. Hazard. Mater., 405; 124028.
    Jeong, J., & Choi, J. (2019). Adverse outcome pathways potentially related to hazard
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    Lu, L., Wan, Z., Luo, T., Fu, Z., & Jin, Y. (2018). Polystyrene microplastics induce
    gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic lipid metabolism disorder in mice. Sci. Total Environ., 631; 449-458.
    Mamun, A., Al-Prasetya, T. A. E., Dewi, I. R., & Ahmad, M. (2023). Microplastics in human food chains: food becoming a threat to health safety. Sci. Total Environ., 858; 159834.
    Meng, X., Zhang, J., Wang, W., Gonzalez-Gi, G., Vrouwenvelder, J. S., & Zhenyu Li, Z., (2022). Effects of nano- and microplastics on kidney: Physicochemical properties, bioaccumulation, oxidative stress. Chemosphere., 288; 132631.
    Nelms, S. E., Barnett, J., Brownlow, A., Davison, N. J., Deaville, R., Galloway, T. S.,
    Lindeque, P. K., Santillo, D., & Godley, B. J. (2019). Microplastics in marine
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    Neves, D., Sobral, P., Ferreira, J. L., & Pereira, T. (2015). Ingestion of microplastics
    by commercial fish off the Portuguese coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 101(1);
    119-126.
    Obmann, B. E., Sarau, G., Holtmannspotter, H., Pischetsrieder, M., Christiansen, S. H., & Dicke, W. (2018). Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Res., 141; 307-316.
    Osman, A. A., Arslan, E., Bartels, M., Michikawa, C., Lindemann, A., Tomczak, K., Yu, W., Sandulache, V., Ma, W., Shen, L., & Wang, J. (2023). Dysregulation and epigenetic reprogramming of NRF2 signaling axis promote acquisition of cisplatin resistance and metastasis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res., 29(7); 1344-1359.
    Patel, A. K., Bhagat, C., Taki, K., & Kumar, M. (2020). Microplastic vulnerability in the sediments of the Sabarmati River of India. InResilience, Response, and Risk in Water Systems: Shifting Management and Natural Forcings Paradigms. 127-138. 
    Prata, J. C., Silva, A. L. P., da Costa, J. P., Dias-Pereira, P., Carvalho, A., Fernandes,
    A. J. S., da Costa, F. M., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2022). Microplastics in internal tissues of companion animals from urban environments. Animals., 12(15); 1979.
    Reguera, P., Viñas, L., & Gago, J. (2019). Microplastics in wild mussels (Mytilus
    spp.) from the north coast of Spain. Sci. Mar., 83(4); 337-347.
    Roursgaard, M., Hezareh Rothmann, M., Schulte, J., Karadimou, I., Marinelli, E., & Møller, P. (2022). Genotoxicity of particles from grinded plastic items in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells. Front Pub Health., 10; 906430.
    Sekudewicz, I., Dąbrowska, A. M., & Syczewski, M. D. (2021). Microplastic pollution in surface water and sediments in the urban section of the Vistula River (Poland). Sci. Total Environ., 762; 143111.
    Su, L., Deng, H., Li, B., Chen, Q., Pettigrove, V., Wu, C., & Shi, H. (2019). The
    occurrence of microplastic in specific organs in commercially caught fishes
    from coast and estuary area of East China. J. Hazard. Mater., 365;
    716-724.
    Wang, W., Guan, J., Feng, Y., Nie, L., Xu, Y., Xu, H., & Fu, F. (2023). Polystyrene microplastics induced nephrotoxicity associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in juvenile rats. Front. Nutr., 9; 1059660.
    Wright, S. L., & Kelly, F. J. (2017). Plastic and human health: a micro issue? Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(12); 6634-47.
    Xiong, X., Gao, L., Chen, C., Zhu, K., Luo, P., & Li, L. (2023). Microplastics exposure induces the kidney injury in mice revealed by RNA-seq. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 256; 114821.
    Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Kannan, K. (2021). Polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in pet food and feces from the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(20); 12035-12042.
    Zhao, L., Shi, W., Hu, F., Song, X., Cheng, Z., & Zhou, J. (2021). Prolonged oral ingestion of microplastics induced inflammation in the liver tissues of C57BL/6J mice through polarization of macrophages and increased infiltration of natural killer cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 227; 112882.
    Zou, H., Chen, Y., Qu, H., Sun, J., Wang, T., Ma, Y., Yuan, Y., Bian, J., & Liu, Z. (2022). Microplastics exacerbate cadmium-induced kidney injury by enhancing oxidative stress, autophagy, apoptosis, and fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23; 14411.

    Abdel-Zaher, S., Mohamed, M. S., & Sayed, A. E. D. H. (2023). Hemotoxic effects of polyethylene microplastics on mice. Front Physiol., 14; 297.
    Anon, A. (2007). Final report on the safety assessment of polyethylene. Chem. Inform., 38(31); 200731248.
    Ballesteros, S., Domenech, J., Barguilla, I., Cortés, C., Marcos, R., & Hernández, A. (2020). Genotoxic and immunomodulatory effects in human white blood cells after ex vivo exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics. Environ Sci: Nano., 7(11); 3431-3446.
    Carlin, J., Craig, C., Little, S., Donnelly, M., Fox, D., Zhai, L., & Walters, L. (2020).
    Microplastic accumulation in the gastrointestinal tracts in birds of prey in Central Florida, USA. Environ. Pollut., 264; 114633.
    Cozar, A., Echevarría, F., González-Gordillo, J. I., Irigoien, X., Úbeda, B., Hernández-León, S., Palma, Á. T., Navarro. S., García-de-Lomas, J., Ruiz, A., & Fernández-de-Puelles, M. L. (2014). Plastic debris in the open ocean. PNAS., 111(28); 10239-44.
    Chen, X., Zhuang, J., Chen, Q., Xu, L., Yue, X., & Qiao, D. (2022). Chronic exposure to polyvinyl chloride microplastics induces liver injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis based on the integration of liver transcriptome profiles and full-length 16S rRNA sequencing data. Sci. Total Environ., 839; 155984
    Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 62(12); 2588-97.
    Collins, A. R., Dusinska, M., Gedik, C. M., & Stetina, R. (1996). Oxidative damage to DNA: Do we have a reliable biomarker? Environ. Health Perspect., 104(3); 465-469.
    Coppock, R. L., Galloway, T. S., Cole, M., Fileman, E. S., Queirós, A. M., & Lindeque, P. K. (2019). Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Sci. Total Environ., 687; 780-9.
    da Costa Araujo, A. P., & Malafaia, G. (2020). Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles’ behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri). J. Hazard. Mater., 391; 122214.
    Ding, J., Jiang, F., Li, J., Wang, Z., Sun, C., Wang, Z., Fu, L., Ding, N. X., & He, C. (2019). Microplastics in the coral reef systems from Xisha Islands of South China Sea. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(14); 8036-46.
    FAO, (2017). Microplastics in fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
    Frias, J. P., & Nash, R. (2019). Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 38: 145-147.
    Goodman, K. E., Hua, T., & Sang, Q. A. (2022). Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics on Human Kidney and Liver Cell Morphology, Cellular Proliferation, and Metabolism. ACS Omega., 7; 34136-34153.
    Haindongo, N. N. K., Breen, C. J., & Neretin, L. (2023). Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution. In: In: Present Knowledge in Food Safety. Elsevier., 270-280.
    Hou, B., Wang, F., Liu, T., & Wang, Z. (2021). Reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: In vivo experimental study on testicular toxicity in mice. J. Hazard. Mater., 405; 124028.
    Jeong, J., & Choi, J. (2019). Adverse outcome pathways potentially related to hazard
    identification of microplastics based on toxicity mechanisms. Chemosphere.,
    231; 249-255.
    Jin, Y., Lu, L., Tu, W., Luo, T., & Fu, Z. (2019). Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice. Sci. Total Environ., 649; 308-317.
    Karami, A. (2017). Gaps in aquatic toxicological studies of microplastics. Chemosphere., 184; 841-848.
    Kershaw, P. J., Turra, A., & Galgani, F. (2011). Guidelines for the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean.
    Kienzler, A., Tronchere, X., Devaux, A., & Bony, S. (2012). Assessment of RTG-W1, RTL-W1, and PLHC-1 fish cell lines for genotoxicity testing of environmental pollutants by means of a Fpg-modified comet assay. Toxicol. In Vitro., 26(3); 500-10.
    Kratina, P., Watts, T. J., Green, D. S., Kordas, R. L., & O’Gorman, E. J. (2019). Interactive effects of warming and microplastics on metabolism but not feeding rates of a key freshwater detritivore. Environ. Pollut., 255; 113259.
    Law, K. L. (2017). Plastics in the marine environment. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci., 9(1); 205-29.
    Li, R., Yu, L., Chai, M., Wu, H., & Zhu, X. (2020). The distribution, characteristics and ecological risks of microplastics in the mangroves of Southern China. Sci. Total Environ., 708; 135025.
    Lieshchova, M. A., Brygadyrenko, V. V., Tishkina, N. M., Gavrilin, P. M., & Bohomaz, A. A. (2019). Impact of polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polyethylene on the organism of mice. Regul. Mech. Biosys., 10(1);
    50-55.
    Liu, H., Yang, X., Liu, G., Liang, C., Xue, S., Chen, H., & Geissen, V. (2017). Response of soil dissolved organic matter to microplastic addition in Chinese loess soil. Chemosphere., 185; 907-917.
    Lu, L., Wan, Z., Luo, T., Fu, Z., & Jin, Y. (2018). Polystyrene microplastics induce
    gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic lipid metabolism disorder in mice. Sci. Total Environ., 631; 449-458.
    Mamun, A., Al-Prasetya, T. A. E., Dewi, I. R., & Ahmad, M. (2023). Microplastics in human food chains: food becoming a threat to health safety. Sci. Total Environ., 858; 159834.
    Meng, X., Zhang, J., Wang, W., Gonzalez-Gi, G., Vrouwenvelder, J. S., & Zhenyu Li, Z., (2022). Effects of nano- and microplastics on kidney: Physicochemical properties, bioaccumulation, oxidative stress. Chemosphere., 288; 132631.
    Nelms, S. E., Barnett, J., Brownlow, A., Davison, N. J., Deaville, R., Galloway, T. S.,
    Lindeque, P. K., Santillo, D., & Godley, B. J. (2019). Microplastics in marine
    mammals stranded around the British coast: Ubiquitous but transitory? Sci. Rep., 9; 1075.
    Neves, D., Sobral, P., Ferreira, J. L., & Pereira, T. (2015). Ingestion of microplastics
    by commercial fish off the Portuguese coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 101(1);
    119-126.
    Obmann, B. E., Sarau, G., Holtmannspotter, H., Pischetsrieder, M., Christiansen, S. H., & Dicke, W. (2018). Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Res., 141; 307-316.
    Osman, A. A., Arslan, E., Bartels, M., Michikawa, C., Lindemann, A., Tomczak, K., Yu, W., Sandulache, V., Ma, W., Shen, L., & Wang, J. (2023). Dysregulation and epigenetic reprogramming of NRF2 signaling axis promote acquisition of cisplatin resistance and metastasis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res., 29(7); 1344-1359.
    Patel, A. K., Bhagat, C., Taki, K., & Kumar, M. (2020). Microplastic vulnerability in the sediments of the Sabarmati River of India. InResilience, Response, and Risk in Water Systems: Shifting Management and Natural Forcings Paradigms. 127-138. 
    Prata, J. C., Silva, A. L. P., da Costa, J. P., Dias-Pereira, P., Carvalho, A., Fernandes,
    A. J. S., da Costa, F. M., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2022). Microplastics in internal tissues of companion animals from urban environments. Animals., 12(15); 1979.
    Reguera, P., Viñas, L., & Gago, J. (2019). Microplastics in wild mussels (Mytilus
    spp.) from the north coast of Spain. Sci. Mar., 83(4); 337-347.
    Roursgaard, M., Hezareh Rothmann, M., Schulte, J., Karadimou, I., Marinelli, E., & Møller, P. (2022). Genotoxicity of particles from grinded plastic items in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells. Front Pub Health., 10; 906430.
    Sekudewicz, I., Dąbrowska, A. M., & Syczewski, M. D. (2021). Microplastic pollution in surface water and sediments in the urban section of the Vistula River (Poland). Sci. Total Environ., 762; 143111.
    Su, L., Deng, H., Li, B., Chen, Q., Pettigrove, V., Wu, C., & Shi, H. (2019). The
    occurrence of microplastic in specific organs in commercially caught fishes
    from coast and estuary area of East China. J. Hazard. Mater., 365;
    716-724.
    Wang, W., Guan, J., Feng, Y., Nie, L., Xu, Y., Xu, H., & Fu, F. (2023). Polystyrene microplastics induced nephrotoxicity associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in juvenile rats. Front. Nutr., 9; 1059660.
    Wright, S. L., & Kelly, F. J. (2017). Plastic and human health: a micro issue? Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(12); 6634-47.
    Xiong, X., Gao, L., Chen, C., Zhu, K., Luo, P., & Li, L. (2023). Microplastics exposure induces the kidney injury in mice revealed by RNA-seq. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 256; 114821.
    Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Kannan, K. (2021). Polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in pet food and feces from the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(20); 12035-12042.
    Zhao, L., Shi, W., Hu, F., Song, X., Cheng, Z., & Zhou, J. (2021). Prolonged oral ingestion of microplastics induced inflammation in the liver tissues of C57BL/6J mice through polarization of macrophages and increased infiltration of natural killer cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 227; 112882.
    Zou, H., Chen, Y., Qu, H., Sun, J., Wang, T., Ma, Y., Yuan, Y., Bian, J., & Liu, Z. (2022). Microplastics exacerbate cadmium-induced kidney injury by enhancing oxidative stress, autophagy, apoptosis, and fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23; 14411.

    Abdel-Zaher, S., Mohamed, M. S., & Sayed, A. E. D. H. (2023). Hemotoxic effects of polyethylene microplastics on mice. Front Physiol., 14; 297.
    Anon, A. (2007). Final report on the safety assessment of polyethylene. Chem. Inform., 38(31); 200731248.
    Ballesteros, S., Domenech, J., Barguilla, I., Cortés, C., Marcos, R., & Hernández, A. (2020). Genotoxic and immunomodulatory effects in human white blood cells after ex vivo exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics. Environ Sci: Nano., 7(11); 3431-3446.
    Carlin, J., Craig, C., Little, S., Donnelly, M., Fox, D., Zhai, L., & Walters, L. (2020).
    Microplastic accumulation in the gastrointestinal tracts in birds of prey in Central Florida, USA. Environ. Pollut., 264; 114633.
    Cozar, A., Echevarría, F., González-Gordillo, J. I., Irigoien, X., Úbeda, B., Hernández-León, S., Palma, Á. T., Navarro. S., García-de-Lomas, J., Ruiz, A., & Fernández-de-Puelles, M. L. (2014). Plastic debris in the open ocean. PNAS., 111(28); 10239-44.
    Chen, X., Zhuang, J., Chen, Q., Xu, L., Yue, X., & Qiao, D. (2022). Chronic exposure to polyvinyl chloride microplastics induces liver injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis based on the integration of liver transcriptome profiles and full-length 16S rRNA sequencing data. Sci. Total Environ., 839; 155984
    Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 62(12); 2588-97.
    Collins, A. R., Dusinska, M., Gedik, C. M., & Stetina, R. (1996). Oxidative damage to DNA: Do we have a reliable biomarker? Environ. Health Perspect., 104(3); 465-469.
    Coppock, R. L., Galloway, T. S., Cole, M., Fileman, E. S., Queirós, A. M., & Lindeque, P. K. (2019). Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Sci. Total Environ., 687; 780-9.
    da Costa Araujo, A. P., & Malafaia, G. (2020). Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles’ behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri). J. Hazard. Mater., 391; 122214.
    Ding, J., Jiang, F., Li, J., Wang, Z., Sun, C., Wang, Z., Fu, L., Ding, N. X., & He, C. (2019). Microplastics in the coral reef systems from Xisha Islands of South China Sea. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(14); 8036-46.
    FAO, (2017). Microplastics in fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
    Frias, J. P., & Nash, R. (2019). Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 38: 145-147.
    Goodman, K. E., Hua, T., & Sang, Q. A. (2022). Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics on Human Kidney and Liver Cell Morphology, Cellular Proliferation, and Metabolism. ACS Omega., 7; 34136-34153.
    Haindongo, N. N. K., Breen, C. J., & Neretin, L. (2023). Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution. In: In: Present Knowledge in Food Safety. Elsevier., 270-280.
    Hou, B., Wang, F., Liu, T., & Wang, Z. (2021). Reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: In vivo experimental study on testicular toxicity in mice. J. Hazard. Mater., 405; 124028.
    Jeong, J., & Choi, J. (2019). Adverse outcome pathways potentially related to hazard
    identification of microplastics based on toxicity mechanisms. Chemosphere.,
    231; 249-255.
    Jin, Y., Lu, L., Tu, W., Luo, T., & Fu, Z. (2019). Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice. Sci. Total Environ., 649; 308-317.
    Karami, A. (2017). Gaps in aquatic toxicological studies of microplastics. Chemosphere., 184; 841-848.
    Kershaw, P. J., Turra, A., & Galgani, F. (2011). Guidelines for the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean.
    Kienzler, A., Tronchere, X., Devaux, A., & Bony, S. (2012). Assessment of RTG-W1, RTL-W1, and PLHC-1 fish cell lines for genotoxicity testing of environmental pollutants by means of a Fpg-modified comet assay. Toxicol. In Vitro., 26(3); 500-10.
    Kratina, P., Watts, T. J., Green, D. S., Kordas, R. L., & O’Gorman, E. J. (2019). Interactive effects of warming and microplastics on metabolism but not feeding rates of a key freshwater detritivore. Environ. Pollut., 255; 113259.
    Law, K. L. (2017). Plastics in the marine environment. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci., 9(1); 205-29.
    Li, R., Yu, L., Chai, M., Wu, H., & Zhu, X. (2020). The distribution, characteristics and ecological risks of microplastics in the mangroves of Southern China. Sci. Total Environ., 708; 135025.
    Lieshchova, M. A., Brygadyrenko, V. V., Tishkina, N. M., Gavrilin, P. M., & Bohomaz, A. A. (2019). Impact of polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polyethylene on the organism of mice. Regul. Mech. Biosys., 10(1);
    50-55.
    Liu, H., Yang, X., Liu, G., Liang, C., Xue, S., Chen, H., & Geissen, V. (2017). Response of soil dissolved organic matter to microplastic addition in Chinese loess soil. Chemosphere., 185; 907-917.
    Lu, L., Wan, Z., Luo, T., Fu, Z., & Jin, Y. (2018). Polystyrene microplastics induce
    gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic lipid metabolism disorder in mice. Sci. Total Environ., 631; 449-458.
    Mamun, A., Al-Prasetya, T. A. E., Dewi, I. R., & Ahmad, M. (2023). Microplastics in human food chains: food becoming a threat to health safety. Sci. Total Environ., 858; 159834.
    Meng, X., Zhang, J., Wang, W., Gonzalez-Gi, G., Vrouwenvelder, J. S., & Zhenyu Li, Z., (2022). Effects of nano- and microplastics on kidney: Physicochemical properties, bioaccumulation, oxidative stress. Chemosphere., 288; 132631.
    Nelms, S. E., Barnett, J., Brownlow, A., Davison, N. J., Deaville, R., Galloway, T. S.,
    Lindeque, P. K., Santillo, D., & Godley, B. J. (2019). Microplastics in marine
    mammals stranded around the British coast: Ubiquitous but transitory? Sci. Rep., 9; 1075.
    Neves, D., Sobral, P., Ferreira, J. L., & Pereira, T. (2015). Ingestion of microplastics
    by commercial fish off the Portuguese coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 101(1);
    119-126.
    Obmann, B. E., Sarau, G., Holtmannspotter, H., Pischetsrieder, M., Christiansen, S. H., & Dicke, W. (2018). Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Res., 141; 307-316.
    Osman, A. A., Arslan, E., Bartels, M., Michikawa, C., Lindemann, A., Tomczak, K., Yu, W., Sandulache, V., Ma, W., Shen, L., & Wang, J. (2023). Dysregulation and epigenetic reprogramming of NRF2 signaling axis promote acquisition of cisplatin resistance and metastasis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res., 29(7); 1344-1359.
    Patel, A. K., Bhagat, C., Taki, K., & Kumar, M. (2020). Microplastic vulnerability in the sediments of the Sabarmati River of India. InResilience, Response, and Risk in Water Systems: Shifting Management and Natural Forcings Paradigms. 127-138. 
    Prata, J. C., Silva, A. L. P., da Costa, J. P., Dias-Pereira, P., Carvalho, A., Fernandes,
    A. J. S., da Costa, F. M., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2022). Microplastics in internal tissues of companion animals from urban environments. Animals., 12(15); 1979.
    Reguera, P., Viñas, L., & Gago, J. (2019). Microplastics in wild mussels (Mytilus
    spp.) from the north coast of Spain. Sci. Mar., 83(4); 337-347.
    Roursgaard, M., Hezareh Rothmann, M., Schulte, J., Karadimou, I., Marinelli, E., & Møller, P. (2022). Genotoxicity of particles from grinded plastic items in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells. Front Pub Health., 10; 906430.
    Sekudewicz, I., Dąbrowska, A. M., & Syczewski, M. D. (2021). Microplastic pollution in surface water and sediments in the urban section of the Vistula River (Poland). Sci. Total Environ., 762; 143111.
    Su, L., Deng, H., Li, B., Chen, Q., Pettigrove, V., Wu, C., & Shi, H. (2019). The
    occurrence of microplastic in specific organs in commercially caught fishes
    from coast and estuary area of East China. J. Hazard. Mater., 365;
    716-724.
    Wang, W., Guan, J., Feng, Y., Nie, L., Xu, Y., Xu, H., & Fu, F. (2023). Polystyrene microplastics induced nephrotoxicity associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in juvenile rats. Front. Nutr., 9; 1059660.
    Wright, S. L., & Kelly, F. J. (2017). Plastic and human health: a micro issue? Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(12); 6634-47.
    Xiong, X., Gao, L., Chen, C., Zhu, K., Luo, P., & Li, L. (2023). Microplastics exposure induces the kidney injury in mice revealed by RNA-seq. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 256; 114821.
    Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Kannan, K. (2021). Polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in pet food and feces from the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(20); 12035-12042.
    Zhao, L., Shi, W., Hu, F., Song, X., Cheng, Z., & Zhou, J. (2021). Prolonged oral ingestion of microplastics induced inflammation in the liver tissues of C57BL/6J mice through polarization of macrophages and increased infiltration of natural killer cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 227; 112882.
    Zou, H., Chen, Y., Qu, H., Sun, J., Wang, T., Ma, Y., Yuan, Y., Bian, J., & Liu, Z. (2022). Microplastics exacerbate cadmium-induced kidney injury by enhancing oxidative stress, autophagy, apoptosis, and fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23; 14411.

    Abdel-Zaher, S., Mohamed, M. S., & Sayed, A. E. D. H. (2023). Hemotoxic effects of polyethylene microplastics on mice. Front Physiol., 14; 297.
    Anon, A. (2007). Final report on the safety assessment of polyethylene. Chem. Inform., 38(31); 200731248.
    Ballesteros, S., Domenech, J., Barguilla, I., Cortés, C., Marcos, R., & Hernández, A. (2020). Genotoxic and immunomodulatory effects in human white blood cells after ex vivo exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics. Environ Sci: Nano., 7(11); 3431-3446.
    Carlin, J., Craig, C., Little, S., Donnelly, M., Fox, D., Zhai, L., & Walters, L. (2020).
    Microplastic accumulation in the gastrointestinal tracts in birds of prey in Central Florida, USA. Environ. Pollut., 264; 114633.
    Cozar, A., Echevarría, F., González-Gordillo, J. I., Irigoien, X., Úbeda, B., Hernández-León, S., Palma, Á. T., Navarro. S., García-de-Lomas, J., Ruiz, A., & Fernández-de-Puelles, M. L. (2014). Plastic debris in the open ocean. PNAS., 111(28); 10239-44.
    Chen, X., Zhuang, J., Chen, Q., Xu, L., Yue, X., & Qiao, D. (2022). Chronic exposure to polyvinyl chloride microplastics induces liver injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis based on the integration of liver transcriptome profiles and full-length 16S rRNA sequencing data. Sci. Total Environ., 839; 155984
    Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 62(12); 2588-97.
    Collins, A. R., Dusinska, M., Gedik, C. M., & Stetina, R. (1996). Oxidative damage to DNA: Do we have a reliable biomarker? Environ. Health Perspect., 104(3); 465-469.
    Coppock, R. L., Galloway, T. S., Cole, M., Fileman, E. S., Queirós, A. M., & Lindeque, P. K. (2019). Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Sci. Total Environ., 687; 780-9.
    da Costa Araujo, A. P., & Malafaia, G. (2020). Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles’ behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri). J. Hazard. Mater., 391; 122214.
    Ding, J., Jiang, F., Li, J., Wang, Z., Sun, C., Wang, Z., Fu, L., Ding, N. X., & He, C. (2019). Microplastics in the coral reef systems from Xisha Islands of South China Sea. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(14); 8036-46.
    FAO, (2017). Microplastics in fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
    Frias, J. P., & Nash, R. (2019). Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 38: 145-147.
    Goodman, K. E., Hua, T., & Sang, Q. A. (2022). Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics on Human Kidney and Liver Cell Morphology, Cellular Proliferation, and Metabolism. ACS Omega., 7; 34136-34153.
    Haindongo, N. N. K., Breen, C. J., & Neretin, L. (2023). Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution. In: In: Present Knowledge in Food Safety. Elsevier., 270-280.
    Hou, B., Wang, F., Liu, T., & Wang, Z. (2021). Reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: In vivo experimental study on testicular toxicity in mice. J. Hazard. Mater., 405; 124028.
    Jeong, J., & Choi, J. (2019). Adverse outcome pathways potentially related to hazard
    identification of microplastics based on toxicity mechanisms. Chemosphere.,
    231; 249-255.
    Jin, Y., Lu, L., Tu, W., Luo, T., & Fu, Z. (2019). Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice. Sci. Total Environ., 649; 308-317.
    Karami, A. (2017). Gaps in aquatic toxicological studies of microplastics. Chemosphere., 184; 841-848.
    Kershaw, P. J., Turra, A., & Galgani, F. (2011). Guidelines for the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean.
    Kienzler, A., Tronchere, X., Devaux, A., & Bony, S. (2012). Assessment of RTG-W1, RTL-W1, and PLHC-1 fish cell lines for genotoxicity testing of environmental pollutants by means of a Fpg-modified comet assay. Toxicol. In Vitro., 26(3); 500-10.
    Kratina, P., Watts, T. J., Green, D. S., Kordas, R. L., & O’Gorman, E. J. (2019). Interactive effects of warming and microplastics on metabolism but not feeding rates of a key freshwater detritivore. Environ. Pollut., 255; 113259.
    Law, K. L. (2017). Plastics in the marine environment. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci., 9(1); 205-29.
    Li, R., Yu, L., Chai, M., Wu, H., & Zhu, X. (2020). The distribution, characteristics and ecological risks of microplastics in the mangroves of Southern China. Sci. Total Environ., 708; 135025.
    Lieshchova, M. A., Brygadyrenko, V. V., Tishkina, N. M., Gavrilin, P. M., & Bohomaz, A. A. (2019). Impact of polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polyethylene on the organism of mice. Regul. Mech. Biosys., 10(1);
    50-55.
    Liu, H., Yang, X., Liu, G., Liang, C., Xue, S., Chen, H., & Geissen, V. (2017). Response of soil dissolved organic matter to microplastic addition in Chinese loess soil. Chemosphere., 185; 907-917.
    Lu, L., Wan, Z., Luo, T., Fu, Z., & Jin, Y. (2018). Polystyrene microplastics induce
    gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic lipid metabolism disorder in mice. Sci. Total Environ., 631; 449-458.
    Mamun, A., Al-Prasetya, T. A. E., Dewi, I. R., & Ahmad, M. (2023). Microplastics in human food chains: food becoming a threat to health safety. Sci. Total Environ., 858; 159834.
    Meng, X., Zhang, J., Wang, W., Gonzalez-Gi, G., Vrouwenvelder, J. S., & Zhenyu Li, Z., (2022). Effects of nano- and microplastics on kidney: Physicochemical properties, bioaccumulation, oxidative stress. Chemosphere., 288; 132631.
    Nelms, S. E., Barnett, J., Brownlow, A., Davison, N. J., Deaville, R., Galloway, T. S.,
    Lindeque, P. K., Santillo, D., & Godley, B. J. (2019). Microplastics in marine
    mammals stranded around the British coast: Ubiquitous but transitory? Sci. Rep., 9; 1075.
    Neves, D., Sobral, P., Ferreira, J. L., & Pereira, T. (2015). Ingestion of microplastics
    by commercial fish off the Portuguese coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 101(1);
    119-126.
    Obmann, B. E., Sarau, G., Holtmannspotter, H., Pischetsrieder, M., Christiansen, S. H., & Dicke, W. (2018). Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Res., 141; 307-316.
    Osman, A. A., Arslan, E., Bartels, M., Michikawa, C., Lindemann, A., Tomczak, K., Yu, W., Sandulache, V., Ma, W., Shen, L., & Wang, J. (2023). Dysregulation and epigenetic reprogramming of NRF2 signaling axis promote acquisition of cisplatin resistance and metastasis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res., 29(7); 1344-1359.
    Patel, A. K., Bhagat, C., Taki, K., & Kumar, M. (2020). Microplastic vulnerability in the sediments of the Sabarmati River of India. InResilience, Response, and Risk in Water Systems: Shifting Management and Natural Forcings Paradigms. 127-138. 
    Prata, J. C., Silva, A. L. P., da Costa, J. P., Dias-Pereira, P., Carvalho, A., Fernandes,
    A. J. S., da Costa, F. M., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2022). Microplastics in internal tissues of companion animals from urban environments. Animals., 12(15); 1979.
    Reguera, P., Viñas, L., & Gago, J. (2019). Microplastics in wild mussels (Mytilus
    spp.) from the north coast of Spain. Sci. Mar., 83(4); 337-347.
    Roursgaard, M., Hezareh Rothmann, M., Schulte, J., Karadimou, I., Marinelli, E., & Møller, P. (2022). Genotoxicity of particles from grinded plastic items in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells. Front Pub Health., 10; 906430.
    Sekudewicz, I., Dąbrowska, A. M., & Syczewski, M. D. (2021). Microplastic pollution in surface water and sediments in the urban section of the Vistula River (Poland). Sci. Total Environ., 762; 143111.
    Su, L., Deng, H., Li, B., Chen, Q., Pettigrove, V., Wu, C., & Shi, H. (2019). The
    occurrence of microplastic in specific organs in commercially caught fishes
    from coast and estuary area of East China. J. Hazard. Mater., 365;
    716-724.
    Wang, W., Guan, J., Feng, Y., Nie, L., Xu, Y., Xu, H., & Fu, F. (2023). Polystyrene microplastics induced nephrotoxicity associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in juvenile rats. Front. Nutr., 9; 1059660.
    Wright, S. L., & Kelly, F. J. (2017). Plastic and human health: a micro issue? Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(12); 6634-47.
    Xiong, X., Gao, L., Chen, C., Zhu, K., Luo, P., & Li, L. (2023). Microplastics exposure induces the kidney injury in mice revealed by RNA-seq. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 256; 114821.
    Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Kannan, K. (2021). Polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in pet food and feces from the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(20); 12035-12042.
    Zhao, L., Shi, W., Hu, F., Song, X., Cheng, Z., & Zhou, J. (2021). Prolonged oral ingestion of microplastics induced inflammation in the liver tissues of C57BL/6J mice through polarization of macrophages and increased infiltration of natural killer cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 227; 112882.
    Zou, H., Chen, Y., Qu, H., Sun, J., Wang, T., Ma, Y., Yuan, Y., Bian, J., & Liu, Z. (2022). Microplastics exacerbate cadmium-induced kidney injury by enhancing oxidative stress, autophagy, apoptosis, and fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23; 14411.

    Abdel-Zaher, S., Mohamed, M. S., & Sayed, A. E. D. H. (2023). Hemotoxic effects of polyethylene microplastics on mice. Front Physiol., 14; 297.
    Anon, A. (2007). Final report on the safety assessment of polyethylene. Chem. Inform., 38(31); 200731248.
    Ballesteros, S., Domenech, J., Barguilla, I., Cortés, C., Marcos, R., & Hernández, A. (2020). Genotoxic and immunomodulatory effects in human white blood cells after ex vivo exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics. Environ Sci: Nano., 7(11); 3431-3446.
    Carlin, J., Craig, C., Little, S., Donnelly, M., Fox, D., Zhai, L., & Walters, L. (2020).
    Microplastic accumulation in the gastrointestinal tracts in birds of prey in Central Florida, USA. Environ. Pollut., 264; 114633.
    Cozar, A., Echevarría, F., González-Gordillo, J. I., Irigoien, X., Úbeda, B., Hernández-León, S., Palma, Á. T., Navarro. S., García-de-Lomas, J., Ruiz, A., & Fernández-de-Puelles, M. L. (2014). Plastic debris in the open ocean. PNAS., 111(28); 10239-44.
    Chen, X., Zhuang, J., Chen, Q., Xu, L., Yue, X., & Qiao, D. (2022). Chronic exposure to polyvinyl chloride microplastics induces liver injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis based on the integration of liver transcriptome profiles and full-length 16S rRNA sequencing data. Sci. Total Environ., 839; 155984
    Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 62(12); 2588-97.
    Collins, A. R., Dusinska, M., Gedik, C. M., & Stetina, R. (1996). Oxidative damage to DNA: Do we have a reliable biomarker? Environ. Health Perspect., 104(3); 465-469.
    Coppock, R. L., Galloway, T. S., Cole, M., Fileman, E. S., Queirós, A. M., & Lindeque, P. K. (2019). Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Sci. Total Environ., 687; 780-9.
    da Costa Araujo, A. P., & Malafaia, G. (2020). Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles’ behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri). J. Hazard. Mater., 391; 122214.
    Ding, J., Jiang, F., Li, J., Wang, Z., Sun, C., Wang, Z., Fu, L., Ding, N. X., & He, C. (2019). Microplastics in the coral reef systems from Xisha Islands of South China Sea. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(14); 8036-46.
    FAO, (2017). Microplastics in fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
    Frias, J. P., & Nash, R. (2019). Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 38: 145-147.
    Goodman, K. E., Hua, T., & Sang, Q. A. (2022). Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics on Human Kidney and Liver Cell Morphology, Cellular Proliferation, and Metabolism. ACS Omega., 7; 34136-34153.
    Haindongo, N. N. K., Breen, C. J., & Neretin, L. (2023). Emerging contaminants related to plastic and microplastic pollution. In: In: Present Knowledge in Food Safety. Elsevier., 270-280.
    Hou, B., Wang, F., Liu, T., & Wang, Z. (2021). Reproductive toxicity of polystyrene microplastics: In vivo experimental study on testicular toxicity in mice. J. Hazard. Mater., 405; 124028.
    Jeong, J., & Choi, J. (2019). Adverse outcome pathways potentially related to hazard
    identification of microplastics based on toxicity mechanisms. Chemosphere.,
    231; 249-255.
    Jin, Y., Lu, L., Tu, W., Luo, T., & Fu, Z. (2019). Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice. Sci. Total Environ., 649; 308-317.
    Karami, A. (2017). Gaps in aquatic toxicological studies of microplastics. Chemosphere., 184; 841-848.
    Kershaw, P. J., Turra, A., & Galgani, F. (2011). Guidelines for the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean.
    Kienzler, A., Tronchere, X., Devaux, A., & Bony, S. (2012). Assessment of RTG-W1, RTL-W1, and PLHC-1 fish cell lines for genotoxicity testing of environmental pollutants by means of a Fpg-modified comet assay. Toxicol. In Vitro., 26(3); 500-10.
    Kratina, P., Watts, T. J., Green, D. S., Kordas, R. L., & O’Gorman, E. J. (2019). Interactive effects of warming and microplastics on metabolism but not feeding rates of a key freshwater detritivore. Environ. Pollut., 255; 113259.
    Law, K. L. (2017). Plastics in the marine environment. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci., 9(1); 205-29.
    Li, R., Yu, L., Chai, M., Wu, H., & Zhu, X. (2020). The distribution, characteristics and ecological risks of microplastics in the mangroves of Southern China. Sci. Total Environ., 708; 135025.
    Lieshchova, M. A., Brygadyrenko, V. V., Tishkina, N. M., Gavrilin, P. M., & Bohomaz, A. A. (2019). Impact of polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polyethylene on the organism of mice. Regul. Mech. Biosys., 10(1);
    50-55.
    Liu, H., Yang, X., Liu, G., Liang, C., Xue, S., Chen, H., & Geissen, V. (2017). Response of soil dissolved organic matter to microplastic addition in Chinese loess soil. Chemosphere., 185; 907-917.
    Lu, L., Wan, Z., Luo, T., Fu, Z., & Jin, Y. (2018). Polystyrene microplastics induce
    gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic lipid metabolism disorder in mice. Sci. Total Environ., 631; 449-458.
    Mamun, A., Al-Prasetya, T. A. E., Dewi, I. R., & Ahmad, M. (2023). Microplastics in human food chains: food becoming a threat to health safety. Sci. Total Environ., 858; 159834.
    Meng, X., Zhang, J., Wang, W., Gonzalez-Gi, G., Vrouwenvelder, J. S., & Zhenyu Li, Z., (2022). Effects of nano- and microplastics on kidney: Physicochemical properties, bioaccumulation, oxidative stress. Chemosphere., 288; 132631.
    Nelms, S. E., Barnett, J., Brownlow, A., Davison, N. J., Deaville, R., Galloway, T. S.,
    Lindeque, P. K., Santillo, D., & Godley, B. J. (2019). Microplastics in marine
    mammals stranded around the British coast: Ubiquitous but transitory? Sci. Rep., 9; 1075.
    Neves, D., Sobral, P., Ferreira, J. L., & Pereira, T. (2015). Ingestion of microplastics
    by commercial fish off the Portuguese coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 101(1);
    119-126.
    Obmann, B. E., Sarau, G., Holtmannspotter, H., Pischetsrieder, M., Christiansen, S. H., & Dicke, W. (2018). Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water. Water Res., 141; 307-316.
    Osman, A. A., Arslan, E., Bartels, M., Michikawa, C., Lindemann, A., Tomczak, K., Yu, W., Sandulache, V., Ma, W., Shen, L., & Wang, J. (2023). Dysregulation and epigenetic reprogramming of NRF2 signaling axis promote acquisition of cisplatin resistance and metastasis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res., 29(7); 1344-1359.
    Patel, A. K., Bhagat, C., Taki, K., & Kumar, M. (2020). Microplastic vulnerability in the sediments of the Sabarmati River of India. InResilience, Response, and Risk in Water Systems: Shifting Management and Natural Forcings Paradigms. 127-138. 
    Prata, J. C., Silva, A. L. P., da Costa, J. P., Dias-Pereira, P., Carvalho, A., Fernandes,
    A. J. S., da Costa, F. M., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2022). Microplastics in internal tissues of companion animals from urban environments. Animals., 12(15); 1979.
    Reguera, P., Viñas, L., & Gago, J. (2019). Microplastics in wild mussels (Mytilus
    spp.) from the north coast of Spain. Sci. Mar., 83(4); 337-347.
    Roursgaard, M., Hezareh Rothmann, M., Schulte, J., Karadimou, I., Marinelli, E., & Møller, P. (2022). Genotoxicity of particles from grinded plastic items in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells. Front Pub Health., 10; 906430.
    Sekudewicz, I., Dąbrowska, A. M., & Syczewski, M. D. (2021). Microplastic pollution in surface water and sediments in the urban section of the Vistula River (Poland). Sci. Total Environ., 762; 143111.
    Su, L., Deng, H., Li, B., Chen, Q., Pettigrove, V., Wu, C., & Shi, H. (2019). The
    occurrence of microplastic in specific organs in commercially caught fishes
    from coast and estuary area of East China. J. Hazard. Mater., 365;
    716-724.
    Wang, W., Guan, J., Feng, Y., Nie, L., Xu, Y., Xu, H., & Fu, F. (2023). Polystyrene microplastics induced nephrotoxicity associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in juvenile rats. Front. Nutr., 9; 1059660.
    Wright, S. L., & Kelly, F. J. (2017). Plastic and human health: a micro issue? Environ. Sci. Technol., 51(12); 6634-47.
    Xiong, X., Gao, L., Chen, C., Zhu, K., Luo, P., & Li, L. (2023). Microplastics exposure induces the kidney injury in mice revealed by RNA-seq. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 256; 114821.
    Zhang, J., Wang, L., & Kannan, K. (2021). Polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in pet food and feces from the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 53(20); 12035-12042.
    Zhao, L., Shi, W., Hu, F., Song, X., Cheng, Z., & Zhou, J. (2021). Prolonged oral ingestion of microplastics induced inflammation in the liver tissues of C57BL/6J mice through polarization of macrophages and increased infiltration of natural killer cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 227; 112882.
    Zou, H., Chen, Y., Qu, H., Sun, J., Wang, T., Ma, Y., Yuan, Y., Bian, J., & Liu, Z. (2022). Microplastics exacerbate cadmium-induced kidney injury by enhancing oxidative stress, autophagy, apoptosis, and fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23; 14411.

    Abdel-Zaher, S., Mohamed, M. S., & Sayed, A. E. D. H. (2023). Hemotoxic effects of polyethylene microplastics on mice. Front Physiol., 14; 297.

    Anon, A. (2007). Final report on the safety assessment of polyethylene. Chem. Inform., 38(31); 200731248.

    Ballesteros, S., Domenech, J., Barguilla, I., Cortés, C., Marcos, R., & Hernández, A. (2020). Genotoxic and immunomodulatory effects in human white blood cells after ex vivo exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics. Environ Sci: Nano., 7(11); 3431-3446.

    Carlin, J., Craig, C., Little, S., Donnelly, M., Fox, D., Zhai, L., & Walters, L. (2020).

    Microplastic accumulation in the gastrointestinal tracts in birds of prey in Central Florida, USA. Environ. Pollut., 264; 114633.

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Pollution
Volume 12, Issue 1
January 2026
Pages 288-299

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