Pollution

Pollution

Prediction of Air Pollution by Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds (CVOs) Using the LandGEM model and Hazard Coefficients at the West Bandung Regency landfill

Document Type : Original Research Paper

Authors
Darwel Darwel 1
Aidil Fitrah 2
Andi Ferina Herbourine Bonita 3
Dana Prayoga Irawan 4
Anshah Silmi Afifah 5
Mufti Rosyid Very Murtadho 6
Joshua Vidal 7
Yura Witsqa Firmansyah 8
1 Department of Environmental Health, Politeknik Kesehatan Kementerian Kesehatan Padang, Padang 25146, Indonesia
2 Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Mulawarman, 75242, Samarinda, Indonesia
3 Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Tadulako, 94148, Palu, Indonesia
4 Department of Nursing, Politeknik Karya Husada, 16424, Jakarta, Indonesia
5 Department of Furniture Production Engineering, Politeknik Industri Furnitur dan Pengolahan Kayu, 51371, Kendal Regency, Indonesia
6 Doctoral Program in Management, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, Malang 65144, Indonesia
7 Research Associate, Coastal Cities At Risk in the Philippines, Ateneo De Manila University, 1108, Quezon City, Philippines
8 Department of Hospital Administration, STIKES Adi Husada, 60141, Surabaya, Indonesia
10.22059/poll.2026.411546.3299
Abstract
Urban waste management through landfills remains an environmental and public health challenge in developing countries, as the biological degradation and physicochemical reactions within them produce complex gas emissions, including potentially hazardous non-methane organic compounds. Chlorinated volatile organic compounds such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, and ethylidene dichloride have high persistence and significant toxicological profiles, posing a risk to vulnerable populations such as waste takers who are exposed to landfill gases during long working hours. This study used a quantitative cross-sectional design based on Environmental Health Risk Assessment to assess inhalation exposure in 101 waste takers at the Sarimukti landfill in West Java. Pollutant concentrations were estimated using the Landfill Gas Emissions Model based on waste generation data from 2006 to 2021, then converted to mg/m³ and used to calculate inhalation intake and hazard coefficients. The results showed that 1,1-dichloroethane had the highest concentration (9.72 mg/m³) and the largest intake (1,090 mg/kg/day), followed by 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. All hazard coefficients values were below 1.0, indicating that the individual non-carcinogenic risk was still within safe limits. However, chronic exposure, long working hours, and exposure to a mixture of landfill gas pollutants still have the potential to increase cumulative health risks. These findings confirm that an intake-based approach is more representative in assessing occupational risks and support the need for continuous monitoring and integrated risk management strategies to protect the health of waste takers in landfill environments.
Keywords
Chlorinated Volatile Compounds
Environmental Health Risk Assessment
Inhalation Exposure
Landfill Gas Emissions
Waste Pickers
Subjects
Abidin, A. U., Maziya, F. B., Susetyo, S. H., Yoneda, M., & Matsui, Y. (2024). Heavy metal air pollution in an Indonesian landfill site: Characterization, sources, and health risk assessment for informal workers. Environmental Advances, 15, 100512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2024.100512
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (n.d.). Toxicological profile for perchloroethylene (PCE): Chapter 8. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp133-c8.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2008). Toxicological profile for 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane: Chapter 3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp93-c3.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2015). Potential for Human Exposure. In Toxicological Profile for 1,1-Dichloroethane. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK591213/
Ahmed, H., Sharif, A., Bakht, S., Javed, F., & Hassan, W. (2021). Persistent Organic Pollutants and Neurological Disorders: From Exposure to Preventive Interventions (pp. 231–247). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66376-6_11
Danjou, A. M. N., Coudon, T., Praud, D., Lévêque, E., Faure, E., Salizzoni, P., Le Romancer, M., Severi, G., Mancini, F. R., Leffondré, K., Dossus, L., & Fervers, B. (2019). Long-term airborne dioxin exposure and breast cancer risk in a case-control study nested within the French E3N prospective cohort. Environment International, 124, 236–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.01.001
Darwel, D., Suhardono, S., Frediansyah, A., & Firmansyah, Y. W. (2026). Risk Quotient Analysis of Ozone Pollutants on the Occupational Health of Scavengers at Sarimukti Landfill, West Bandung Regency, Indonesia. Int. J. Environ. Impacts., 9(1), 53-61. https://doi.org/10.56578/ijei090105
De Guzman, R., & Schiller, J. (2025). Air pollution and its impact on cancer incidence, cancer care and cancer outcomes. BMJ Oncology, 4(1), e000535. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjonc-2024-000535
Dehghani, F., Yousefinejad, S., Walker, D. I., & Omidi, F. (2022). Metabolomics for exposure assessment and toxicity effects of occupational pollutants: current status and future perspectives. Metabolomics, 18(9), 73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-022-01930-7
El-Emam, D. A. (2025). Emissions from Engineered Landfills and Their Impacts on Climate Change and Sustainable Development. In Handbook of the Effects of Landfill Emissions on Sustainable Development (pp. 93–138). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-01951-6_4
Escamilla-García, P. E. (2024). Landfills in Developing Economies: Drivers, Challenges, and Sustainable Solutions (pp. 157–170). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52633-6_6
Fikri, E., Firmansyah, Y. W., Suhardono, S., Kurniawati, T., Afifah, A. S., & Nugroho, T. A. (2025). Environmental Health Risk Assessment of Xylene Exposure for Waste Pickers at a Landfill in West Java, Indonesia. International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics, 20(10), 2423–2429. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijdne.201019
Firmansyah, Y. W., Probandari, A., Murti, B., & Setyono, P. (2025). Environmental Health Risk Analysis of Methane Gas Pollutants in a Landfill of West Bandung, Indonesia: Risk Quotient Study and LandGEM Model. BIO Web of Conferences, 190, 01001. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202519001001
Gao, T., Wang, C., Chai, F., Zheng, T., & Li, L. (2025). VOCs emission from landfills co-disposed of rural solid waste and sewage sludge: Identification, diffusion, and impact. Environmental Research, 285, 122361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.122361
Huang, X., Han, D., Cheng, J., Chen, X., Zhou, Y., Liao, H., Dong, W., & Yuan, C. (2020). Characteristics and health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in restaurants in Shanghai. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(1), 490–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06881-6
Khan, A., Kanwal, H., Bibi, S., Mushtaq, S., Khan, A., Khan, Y. H., & Mallhi, T. H. (2021). Volatile Organic Compounds and Neurological Disorders: From Exposure to Preventive Interventions (pp. 201–230). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66376-6_10
Kiehbadroudinezhad, M., Merabet, A., & Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H. (2024). Landfill source of greenhouse gas emission. In Advances and Technology Development in Greenhouse Gases: Emission, Capture and Conversion (pp. 123–145). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-19231-9.00023-5
Kiviranta, H., Tuomainen, A., Reiman, M., Laitinen, S., Nevalainen, A., & Liesivouri, J. (1999). Exposure to Airborne Microorganisms and Volatile Organic Compounds in Different Types of Waste Handling. Ann Agric Environ Med, 157(3), 441–449.
Li, R., Yuan, J., Li, X., Zhao, S., Lu, W., Wang, H., & Zhao, Y. (2023). Health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from landfill working surface via dispersion simulation enhanced by probability analysis. Environmental Pollution, 316, 120535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120535
Liu, Y., Li, S., Wang, Q., Zheng, X., Zhao, Y., & Lu, W. (2023). Occupational health risks of VOCs emitted from the working face of municipal solid waste landfill: Temporal variation and influencing factors. Waste Management, 160, 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.02.001
Nanda, S., & Berruti, F. (2021). Municipal solid waste management and landfilling technologies: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 19(2), 1433–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01100-y
Nie, E., Zheng, G., Shao, Z., Yang, J., & Chen, T. (2018). Emission characteristics and health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds produced during municipal solid waste composting. Waste Management, 79, 188–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.07.024
Nurjaya, L. A. N. W., Nurhediana, S. D., Saputro, E. A., Jalil, M. J., & Sari, N. K. (2025). Estimasi Emisi Gas dari Kegiatan Landfilling di TPA Bengkala dengan Model LandGEM. Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan, 23(2), 295–304. https://doi.org/10.14710/jil.23.2.295-304
Ogbodo, J. O., Arazu, A. V., Iguh, T. C., Onwodi, N. J., & Ezike, T. C. (2022). Volatile organic compounds: A proinflammatory activator in autoimmune diseases. Frontiers in Immunology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.928379
Pan, Q., Liu, Q.-Y., Zheng, J., Li, Y.-H., Xiang, S., Sun, X.-J., & He, X.-S. (2023). Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in landfill gas: Composition characteristics and health risks. Environment International, 174, 107886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107886
Parulian, T. S., Firmansyah, Y. W., & Niman, S. (2025). hazard coefficients Association of SO2 Exposure to Respiratory Symptoms: Study on Scavengers in Sarimukti Landfill, West Bandung Regency, East Java, Indonesia. Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health, 10(1), 126–133. https://doi.org/10.26911/jepublichealth.2025.10.05.12
Plantz, G., Chatterton, K., Rago, R., Eklund, B., Hayes, H., & Tran, M. (2025). Indoor Air Background Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds ( <scp>VOCs</scp> ) in California Residences. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation, 45(2), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwmr.12719
Qolifah, L. N., Wahyuningsih, N. E., & Darundiati, Y. H. (2024). Karakteristik Risiko Kesehatan Non Karsinogenik Akibat Paparan Gas SO2 dan NO2 pada Pemulung di TPA Jatibarang Kota Semarang. Jurnal Kesehatan Lingkungan Indonesia, 23(1), 50–58. https://doi.org/10.14710/jkli.23.1.50-58
Raimi, M. O., Abiola, I., Alima, O., Omini, D. E., & Gift, R. A. (2021). Exploring How Human Activities Disturb the Balance of Biogeochemical Cycles: Evidence from the Carbon, Nitrogen and Hydrologic Cycles. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3896054
Ramprasad, C., Teja, H. C., Gowtham, V., & Vikas, V. (2022). Quantification of landfill gas emissions and energy production potential in Tirupati Municipal solid waste disposal site by LandGEM mathematical model. MethodsX, 9, 101869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2022.101869
Rasapoor, M., Young, B., Brar, R., & Baroutian, S. (2021). Enhancement of landfill gas generation from aged waste by a combination of moisture adjustment and application of biochar and neutral red additives: A field-scale study. Fuel, 283, 118932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118932
Ravina, M., Facelli, A., & Zanetti, M. (2020). Halocarbon Emissions from Hazardous Waste Landfills: Analysis of Sources and Risks. Atmosphere, 11(4), 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11040375
Singh, V. (2024). Biogeochemical Cycles. In Textbook of Environment and Ecology (pp. 75–94). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8846-4_5
Tsai, W.-T. (2023). A Survey on Toxic Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Toxicological Profiles, Health Exposure Risks, and Regulatory Strategies for Mitigating Emissions from Stationary Sources in Taiwan. Atmosphere, 14(2), 242. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020242
Wang, X.-G., He, W., He, X.-S., Cao, X., Sun, Y., & Zeng, X.-J. (2025). Occurrence, removal and ecotoxicological assessment of halogenated dissolved organic matter in waste leachates. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 497, 139640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139640
Wang, Y., Zhou, C., Zhang, H., Ma, S., Lou, Z., Raskin, L., Skerlos, S., Coulon, F., Zekkos, D., Hussain, A., Yadav, V., Lisak, G., Fang, M., Yin, K., He, H., Wang, Y., & Fei, X. (2025). Biogeochemical dynamics of major elements in municipal solid waste landfills can induce health risks for nearly 1 billion people. One Earth, 8(9), 101418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101418
Yan, Y., Nie, Y., Gao, X., Yan, X., Ji, Y., Li, J., & Li, H. (2025). Pollution Characterization and Environmental Impact Evaluation of Atmospheric Intermediate Volatile Organic Compounds: A Review. Toxics, 13(4), 318. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040318
Yuan, Q., & Zoungrana, A. (2025). Systematic review of environmental and human health risk assessments in municipal solid waste management. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01544-8
Zeliger, H. (2022). Oxidative Stress: Its Mechanisms, Impacts on Human Health and Disease Onset. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2021-0-00204-2
Zhao, S., Li, R., Wang, S., Liu, Y., Lu, W., & Zhao, Y. (2023). Emission of volatile organic compounds from landfill working surfaces: Formation potential of ozone and secondary organic aerosols. Science of The Total Environment, 886, 163954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163954
Pollution
Volume 12, Issue 3
Summer 2026
Pages 898-910